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Cocaine crosses the blood-brain barrier via a proton-coupled organic cation antiporter [19] [20] [21] affunity to a lesser extent via passive diffusion across cell membranes.
A single dose of cocaine induces tolerance to the drug's effects. Addicts who abstain from cocaine experience cocaine craving and drug withdrawalwith depressionбольше на странице libidodecreased ability to feel pleasure and fatigue. It also increases risk of strokeheart attackcardiac arrhythmia, lung injury when smokedand sudden cardiac death. Coca leaves have been used by Andean civilizations since affinity designer crack 2019 free times.
Globally, in /19579.txt, cocaine нажмите для продолжения used by desifner estimated 20 million people 0. The affinity designer crack 2019 free prevalence of cocaine 2091 was in Australia and New Desitner 2. Topical cocaine is sometimes used as a local numbing agent and vasoconstrictor to help control pain affinitt bleeding with surgery of desginer nose, mouth, throat or lacrimal duct. Although some absorption and systemic effects may occur, the use of cocaine as a topical anesthetic and vasoconstrictor is generally safe, rarely causing cardiovascular toxicity, glaucomaand pupil dilation.
Cocaine hydrochloride Gopreltoan ester local anesthetic, was approved for medical use in the United States in Decemberand is indicated for desginer affinity designer crack 2019 free of local anesthesia of the mucous membranes for diagnostic procedures and surgeries жмите or through the nasal cavities of adults.
The most common adverse reactions in people treated with Goprelto are headache and epistaxis. Cocaine is a central nervous system stimulant. The duration of cocaine's effects depends on the amount taken and the route of administration. Crack cocaine is a smokeable form of cocaine made into small "rocks" by processing cocaine with sodium bicarbonate baking soda and water. Cocaine use leads to increases in affiinity, feelings of well-being and euphoriaincreased energy and motor affinity designer crack 2019 free, and increased feelings of competence and sexuality.
Analysis of the correlation between the use of 18 various psychoactive substances shows that cocaine use correlates with other affniity party drugs " such as ecstasy or amphetaminesas well as with heroin and benzodiazepines use, and can be considered as a bridge between the use of different groups of drugs.
It is legal for people to affintiy Coca leaves in some Andean nations, such as Peru and Bolivia, where they are chewed, consumed in the form of tea, or are sometimes incorporated into food products. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed.
Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Coca teaan infusion of coca leaves, is also a traditional method of consumption.
The tea has often been recommended for travelers in the Andes to prevent altitude sickness. While the packaging claimed it had been "decocainized", no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild stimulationincreased heart rateand mood elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless.
Affinity designer crack 2019 free insufflation known colloquially as "snorting", "sniffing", or "blowing" is a affinity designer crack 2019 free method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine. Cocaine's desired euphoric effects are delayed when snorted through the nose by about five minutes.
This occurs because cocaine's absorption is slowed by its constricting effect on the blood vessels of the nose. In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was Rolled up banknoteshollowed-out penscut strawspointed ends of keys, specialized spoons, [53] long fingernailsand clean tampon applicators are often used to insufflate cocaine.
The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface such as freee mobile phone screen, mirror, CD case or book and divided into "bumps", "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated.
Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears desigher after injection usually when over milligrams lasting two to 5 minutes including tinnitus and audio distortion. This is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken affinity designer crack 2019 free reach peak subjective effects was 3.
Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also the danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all affiinty illicit substancesthere is a risk of the user contracting deeigner infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used. An injected deigner of cocaine and heroinknown as " speedball ", is a particularly dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the affinity designer crack 2019 free actually desiggner each other, but may also mask подробнее на этой странице symptoms of an overdose.
Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such cradk fruit flies affinity designer crack 2019 free study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction. The onset of cocaine's desired euphoric effects is fastest with inhaling cocaine and begins after 3—5 seconds. Cocaine is smoked by inhaling the vapor affinity designer crack 2019 free when solid cocaine is heated to the point that it sublimates.
Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from " love roses ", small glass tubes with a paper rose that freee promoted as romantic gifts.
A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring pad — often called a "brillo" actual Brillo Pads contain soap, and are not used or "chore" named for Chore Boy brand copper scouring pads — serves as a reduction base and crzck modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and 20019 to vapor. Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which affinity designer crack 2019 free then inhaled by the smoker.
The effects felt almost immediately affinity designer crack 2019 free smoking, are very intense and do not last long — usually 2 to 10 minutes. Opioid involvement in cocaine overdose deaths. The affinity designer crack 2019 free line is cocaine and any opioid frre line in Fre gray line is cocaine without any opioids bottom line нажмите для деталей The yellow line is cocaine and other synthetic opioids middle line in Delphic analysis regarding 20 popular dssigner drugs based on expert opinion.
Привожу ссылку was ranked the 2nd in dependence and physical harm drsigner 3rd in social harm. Acute exposure to cocaine has many effects on humans, including euphoria, increases in heart rate and blood pressure, and increases in cortisol secretion from the adrenal gland.
Aggressive behavior may be displayed by both addicts and casual users. Cocaine can induce psychosis characterized by paranoia, impaired reality testingссылка на страницуirritability, and physical aggression. Cocaine intoxication can cause hyperawareness, hypervigilanceand psychomotor agitation and delirium.
Consumption of large doses of affinuty can cause violent outbursts, especially by those with preexisting psychosis. Crack-related violence is also systemic, relating to disputes between crack dealers and users.
Acute exposure /69682.txt also lead to anginaheart attackand congestive heart failure.
With excessive dosage, tremors, convulsions and increased body temperature are observed. Although it has been commonly asserted, the available evidence does not show that chronic use of cocaine is associated with broad cognitive deficits. Physical side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include coughing up bloodbronchospasmaffinity designer crack 2019 freefeverdiffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic eosinophiliachest pain, lung trauma, sore throat, asthmahoarse voice, dyspnea shortness of desigjerand an aching, flu -like syndrome.
Cocaine constricts blood vesselsdilates pupilsaffinity designer join two nodes increases body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. It can also cause headaches and gastrointestinal complications such as abdominal pain and nausea. A common but untrue belief is that affinity designer crack 2019 free smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth decay.
Cocaine can cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxismwhich can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis. Since saliva is an important mechanism in maintaining one's oral pH level, people who use cocaine over a long period of time who do not hydrate sufficiently may experience demineralization of their teeth due to the pH of the tooth surface dropping too low below 5.
Affinity designer crack 2019 free use also promotes the formation of blood clots. Chronic intranasal usage can degrade affnity cartilage separating the nostrils the septum nasileading eventually to its complete disappearance.
Due to the absorption of the cocaine from cocaine hydrochloride, the remaining hydrochloride forms a dilute hydrochloric acid. Illicitly-sold cocaine may be contaminated with levamisole. Resigner use leads to an increased risk of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes. This change can be identified rather quickly, and may be sustained weeks after the last dose of the drug. DNA damage is increased in the brain of rodents by administration of cocaine. Cocaine dependence develops after even brief periods of regular cocaine use [92] and produces a withdrawal state with emotional-motivational desgner upon cessation of cocaine use.
Affonity baby is a term for a child born to sesigner mother who used crack cocaine during her pregnancy. The threat that cocaine use during pregnancy poses to the fetus is now considered exaggerated. Many recall that "crack babies", or babies born to mothers who used crack cocaine while pregnant, were at one time written off by many as a lost generation.
They were predicted to suffer from severe, irreversible damage, including reduced intelligence and social skills. It was later found that this was a gross exaggeration. However, the fact that most of these children appear normal should not be over-interpreted as indicating that there is no cause for concern. Using sophisticated technologies, scientists are now finding that exposure to cocaine during fetal development ffree lead to subtle, yet significant, later deficits afifnity some children, including deficits in some aspects of cognitive performance, information-processing, and attention to tasks—abilities that affiinity important for affinity designer crack 2019 free in school.
There are also warnings about the threat of breastfeeding : The March of Dimes said "it is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk," and advises the following regarding cocaine use during pregnancy:. Cocaine use during pregnancy can affect affinity designer crack 2019 free pregnant woman and her unborn baby in many ways. During the early months of pregnancy, it may increase the risk of miscarriage. Later in pregnancy, it can trigger preterm labor labor that occurs before feee weeks of pregnancy or cause the baby to grow poorly.
As a result, cocaine-exposed babies are more likely than unexposed babies to be born with low birth weight less than 5. Low-birthweight babies are 20 times more resigner to die in their first month of life than normal-weight babies, and face an increased risk of lifelong disabilities such ddesigner mental retardation and cerebral palsy. Cocaine-exposed babies also tend to have smaller heads, which generally reflect smaller brains.
Some studies suggest that cocaine-exposed babies are at increased risk of birth defects, including urinary tract defects and, possibly, heart defects. Cocaine also may cause an unborn baby to have a stroke, irreversible brain damage, or a heart attack. Persons with regular or problematic use of affinityy have a significantly higher rate of death, and are specifically at higher risk of traumatic deaths and deaths attributable to infectious disease. The extent of absorption of cocaine into the systemic circulation affinity designer crack 2019 free nasal insufflation is similar to that after oral ingestion.
The rate of absorption after nasal insufflation is somewhat limited by cocaine-induced vasoconstriction of capillaries in the nasal mucosa. Affinity designer crack 2019 free onset of absorption after oral ingestion is delayed because cocaine is a weak base desjgner a pKa of 8.
The delay in absorption after oral ingestion may account for the popular belief that cocaine bioavailability from the stomach is lower than after insufflation. Compared to ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes.
Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated designe are sustained for approximately 40—60 minutes after the peak effects afflnity attained. Cocaine has a short elimination half life of 0. Depending on liver and kidney function, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine.
Detection of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out. Dopamine neurotransmitter released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.
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In some animals, the urea cycle derives putrescine from ornithine. L-ornithine is converted to L-arginine, [] which is then decarboxylated via PLP to form agmatine. Hydrolysis of the imine derives N -carbamoylputrescine followed with hydrolysis of the urea to form putrescine. The separate pathways of converting ornithine to putrescine in plants and animals have converged. A SAM-dependent N -methylation of putrescine gives the N -methylputrescine product, which then undergoes oxidative deamination by the action of diamine oxidase to yield the aminoaldehyde.
The biosynthesis of the tropane alkaloid is still not understood. Hemscheidt proposes that Robinson's acetonedicarboxylate emerges as a potential intermediate for this reaction. Decarboxylation leads to tropane alkaloid formation.
The reduction of tropinone is mediated by NADPH -dependent reductase enzymes, which have been characterized in multiple plant species. Cocaine and its major metabolites may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to monitor for use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or sudden death. Most commercial cocaine immunoassay screening tests cross-react appreciably with the major cocaine metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances.
When interpreting the results of a test, it is important to consider the cocaine usage history of the individual, since a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate a cocaine-naive individual, and the chronic user often has high baseline values of the metabolites in his system. Cautious interpretation of testing results may allow a distinction between passive or active usage, and between smoking versus other routes of administration.
Cocaine may be detected by law enforcement using the Scott reagent. The test can easily generate false positives for common substances and must be confirmed with a laboratory test. The shade of brown shown by the chloroform is proportional to the cocaine content.
This test is not cross sensitive to heroin, methamphetamine, benzocaine, procaine and a number of other drugs but other chemicals could cause false positives. According to a United Nations report, England and Wales are the countries with the highest rate of cocaine usage 2. Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in Europe behind cannabis. Since the mids, overall cocaine usage in Europe has been on the rise, but usage rates and attitudes tend to vary between countries.
Approximately 17 million Europeans 5. About 1. The ratio of male to female users is approximately 3. In London had the highest amount of cocaine in its sewage out of 50 European cities. Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the United States behind cannabis [] and the U. In the s and s, the drug became particularly popular in the disco culture as cocaine usage was very common and popular in many discos such as Studio Treatment with contingency management , such as providing vouchers for retail items contingent upon objectively-verified abstinence from recent drug use, has been shown in randomized clinical trials to significantly reduce the likelihood of having a positive test for the presence of cocaine.
TA-CD is an active vaccine [] developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of cocaine, making it suitable for use in treatment of addiction.
It is created by combining norcocaine with inactivated cholera toxin. Indigenous peoples of South America have chewed the leaves of Erythroxylon coca — a plant that contains vital nutrients as well as numerous alkaloids , including cocaine — for over a thousand years. The remains of coca leaves have been found with ancient Peruvian mummies, and pottery from the time period depicts humans with bulged cheeks, indicating the presence of something on which they are chewing.
When the Spanish arrived in South America , the conquistadors at first banned coca as an "evil agent of devil". When they wished to make themselves drunk and out of judgment they chewed a mixture of tobacco and coca leaves which make them go as they were out of their wittes.
In , Padre Blas Valera wrote:. Coca protects the body from many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of wounds, to strengthen broken bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots. And if it does so much for outward ailments, will not its singular virtue have even greater effect in the entrails of those who eat it? Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine alkaloid was not achieved until Various European scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and contemporary conditions of sea-shipping from South America could degrade the cocaine in the plant samples available to European chemists.
The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke in Gaedcke named the alkaloid "erythroxyline", and published a description in the journal Archiv der Pharmazie. Carl Scherzer , a scientist aboard the Novara an Austrian frigate sent by Emperor Franz Joseph to circle the globe , to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. He wrote of the alkaloid's "colourless transparent prisms" and said that "Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue.
Because of the former use of cocaine as a local anesthetic , a suffix "-caine" was later extracted and used to form names of synthetic local anesthetics. With the discovery of this new alkaloid, Western medicine was quick to exploit the possible uses of this plant.
He prepared two separate jars, one containing a cocaine-salt solution, with the other containing merely saltwater. He then submerged a frog's legs into the two jars, one leg in the treatment and one in the control solution, and proceeded to stimulate the legs in several different ways. The leg that had been immersed in the cocaine solution reacted very differently from the leg that had been immersed in saltwater.
Karl Koller a close associate of Sigmund Freud , who would write about cocaine later experimented with cocaine for ophthalmic usage. In an infamous experiment in , he experimented upon himself by applying a cocaine solution to his own eye and then pricking it with pins. His findings were presented to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society.
Also in , Jellinek demonstrated the effects of cocaine as a respiratory system anesthetic. In , William Halsted demonstrated nerve-block anesthesia, [] and James Leonard Corning demonstrated peridural anesthesia. In , an Italian doctor , Paolo Mantegazza , returned from Peru , where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the local indigenous peoples. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to Milan , he wrote a paper in which he described the effects.
In this paper, he declared coca and cocaine at the time they were assumed to be the same as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of "a furred tongue in the morning, flatulence , and whitening of the teeth.
A chemist named Angelo Mariani who read Mantegazza's paper became immediately intrigued with coca and its economic potential. In , Mariani started marketing a wine called Vin Mariani , which had been treated with coca leaves, to become coca wine. The ethanol in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink's effect.
It contained 6 mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7. A "pinch of coca leaves" was included in John Styth Pemberton 's original recipe for Coca-Cola , though the company began using decocainized leaves in when the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed. In cocaine began to be used to treat morphine addiction.
Exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal euphoria of the healthy person. You perceive an increase of self-control and possess more vitality and capacity for work.
In other words, you are simply normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug. Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigue. This result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcoholic beverages.
No craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug. By the U. By the late Victorian era , cocaine use had appeared as a vice in literature. For example, it was injected by Arthur Conan Doyle 's fictional Sherlock Holmes , generally to offset the boredom he felt when he was not working on a case.
In early 20th-century Memphis, Tennessee , cocaine was sold in neighborhood drugstores on Beale Street , costing five or ten cents for a small boxful. Stevedores along the Mississippi River used the drug as a stimulant, and white employers encouraged its use by black laborers. In the song " Minnie the Moocher ", Cab Calloway heavily references cocaine use. He uses the phrase "kicking the gong around", slang for cocaine use; describes titular character Minnie as "tall and skinny;" and describes Smokey Joe as "cokey".
During the mids, amidst World War II, cocaine was considered for inclusion as an ingredient of a future generation of 'pep pills' for the German military, code named D-IX. In modern popular culture, references to cocaine are common. The drug has a glamorous image associated with the wealthy, famous and powerful, and is said to make users "feel rich and beautiful".
In many countries, cocaine is a popular recreational drug. In the United States, the development of "crack" cocaine introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. The use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late s and early s in the U.
Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood.
The estimated U. An American representative in the World Health Assembly banned the publication of the study, because it seemed to make a case for the positive uses of cocaine.
An excerpt of the report strongly conflicted with accepted paradigms, for example, "that occasional cocaine use does not typically lead to severe or even minor physical or social problems. This led to the decision to discontinue publication. A part of the study was recuperated and published in , including profiles of cocaine use in 20 countries, but are unavailable as of [update].
In October it was reported that the use of cocaine in Australia has doubled since monitoring began in A problem with illegal cocaine use, especially in the higher volumes used to combat fatigue rather than increase euphoria by long-term users, is the risk of ill effects or damage caused by the compounds used in adulteration. The normal adulterants for profit are inactive sugars, usually mannitol, creatine, or glucose, so introducing active adulterants gives the illusion of purity and to 'stretch' or make it so a dealer can sell more product than without the adulterants.
The production, distribution, and sale of cocaine products is restricted and illegal in most contexts in most countries as regulated by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs , and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. In the United States the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine are additionally regulated by the Controlled Substances Act.
Some countries, such as Peru and Bolivia, permit the cultivation of coca leaf for traditional consumption by the local indigenous population , but nevertheless, prohibit the production, sale, and consumption of cocaine. The US federal government instituted a national labeling requirement for cocaine and cocaine-containing products through the Pure Food and Drug Act of While this act is often seen as the start of prohibition, the act itself was not actually a prohibition on cocaine, but instead set up a regulatory and licensing regime.
Before the early s, the primary problem caused by cocaine use was portrayed by newspapers to be addiction, not violence or crime, and the cocaine user was represented as an upper- or middle-class White person. In , according to the United Nations , tonnes of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities. Colombia seized t, the United States t, Europe 79 t, Peru 14 t, Bolivia 9 t, and the rest of the world t. Colombia is as of the world's largest cocaine producer, with production more than tripling since This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mids.
Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. An interview with a coca farmer published in described a mode of production by acid-base extraction that has changed little since Roughly pounds kg of leaves were harvested per hectare , six times per year.
The leaves were dried for half a day, then chopped into small pieces with a string trimmer and sprinkled with a small amount of powdered cement replacing sodium carbonate from former times. Several hundred pounds of this mixture were soaked in 50 US gallons L of gasoline for a day, then the gasoline was removed and the leaves were pressed for the remaining liquid, after which they could be discarded. Then battery acid weak sulfuric acid was used, one bucket per 55 lb 25 kg of leaves, to create a phase separation in which the cocaine free base in the gasoline was acidified and extracted into a few buckets of "murky-looking smelly liquid".
Once powdered caustic soda was added to this, the cocaine precipitated and could be removed by filtration through a cloth. The resulting material, when dried, was termed pasta and sold by the farmer. The pound yearly harvest of leaves from a hectare produced 6 lb 2.
Repeated recrystallization from solvents, producing pasta lavada and eventually crystalline cocaine were performed at specialized laboratories after the sale. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca-growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use.
Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. Although production fell temporarily, coca crops rebounded in numerous smaller fields in Colombia, rather than the larger plantations. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive economic decision for many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, the spread of new strains of the coca plant due to persistent worldwide demand.
The latest estimate provided by the U. As of the end of , the seizure operations of Colombian cocaine carried out in different countries have totaled Department of State's estimates. Synthesizing cocaine could eliminate the high visibility and low reliability of offshore sources and international smuggling, replacing them with clandestine domestic laboratories, as are common for illicit methamphetamine , but is rarely done.
Natural cocaine remains the lowest cost and highest quality supply of cocaine. Formation of inactive stereoisomers cocaine has four chiral centres — 1 R 2 R , 3 S , and 5 S , two of them dependent, hence eight possible stereoisomers plus synthetic by-products limits the yield and purity.
Organized criminal gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. The primary cocaine importation points in the United States have been in Arizona , southern California , southern Florida , and Texas. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.
Sixty-five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida. Cocaine traffickers from Colombia and Mexico have established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida.
They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug using a variety of smuggling techniques to U. These include airdrops of to kg 1, to 1, lb in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico , mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of to 2, kg 1, to 4, lb , and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami.
Another route of cocaine traffic goes through Chile, which is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lie in northern Chile. While the price of cocaine is higher in Chile than in Peru and Bolivia, the final destination is usually Europe, especially Spain where drug dealing networks exist among South American immigrants. Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as " mules " or "mulas" , who cross a border either legally, for example, through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere.
The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If caught, gangs will sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone. Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western Caribbean— Gulf of Mexico area. These vessels are typically —foot 50—80 m coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.
Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as go-fast boats , like those used by the local populations.
Sophisticated drug subs are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on 20 March Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them.
Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the Summer Pulse Check , published by the U.
In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be due to a switch to methamphetamine among some users; methamphetamine is cheaper, three and a half times more powerful, and lasts 12—24 times longer with each dose. These amounts and prices are very popular among young people because they are inexpensive and easily concealed on one's body.
Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on supply and demand, and on geographic region. Between and , the value of the market remained basically stable". From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Tropane alkaloid and stimulant drug. For other uses, see Cocaine disambiguation. US DailyMed : Cocaine. IUPAC name. Methyl 1 R ,2 R ,3 S ,5 S benzoyloxy methylazabicyclo[3. DB Y. D Y. Interactive image. See also: Crack cocaine. Main article: Cocaine intoxication. See also: Epigenetics of cocaine addiction. Main article: Prenatal cocaine exposure. Main article: Freebase chemistry. Main article: Crack cocaine. Main article: Biosynthesis of cocaine. Main article: List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use.
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World Drug Report United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 7 July The duplication is either in full or in part depending on the mode. The user can also clone part of one layer to another layer.
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Selection tools are used to select all or any part of a picture to perform cut, copy, edit, or retouching operations. The crop tool can be used to select a particular area of an image and discard the portions outside the chosen section.
This tool assists in creating a focus point on an image and unnecessary or excess space. The crop tool is in the tools palette, which is located on the right side of the document.
By placing the cursor over the image, the user can drag the cursor to the desired area. Once the Enter key is pressed, the area outside the rectangle will be cropped. The area outside the rectangle is the discarded data, which allows for the file size to be decreased.
The slice and slice select tools, like the crop tool, are used in isolating parts of images. The slice tool can be used to divide an image into different sections, and these separate parts can be used as pieces of a web page design once HTML and CSS are applied. The move tool can be used to drag the entirety of a single layer or more if they are selected. Alternatively, once an area of an image is highlighted, the move tool can be used to manually relocate the selected piece to anywhere on the canvas.
The marquee is a tool that can make selections that are a single row, single column, rectangular and elliptical. This tool can also crop an image; it allows for better control. In contrast to the crop tool, the marquee tool allows for more adjustments to the selected area before cropping.
The only marquee tool that does not allow cropping is the elliptical. Although the single row and column marquee tools allow for cropping, they are not ideal, because they only crop a line. The rectangular marquee tool is the preferred option.
Once the tool has been selected, dragging the tool across the desired area will select it. The selected area will be outlined by dotted lines, referred to as "marching ants".
To set a specific size or ratio, the tool options bar provides these settings. Before selecting an area, the desired size or ratio must be set by adjusting the width and height. Any changes such as color, filters, location, etc. To crop the selection, the user must go to the image tab and select crop. The lasso tool is similar to the marquee tool, however, the user can make a custom selection by drawing it freehand.
The regular lasso tool allows the user to have drawing capabilities. Photoshop will complete the selection once the mouse button is released.
The user may also complete the selection by connecting the end point to the starting point. The "marching ants" will indicate if a selection has been made. The polygonal lasso tool will draw only straight lines, which makes it an ideal choice for images with many straight lines. Unlike the regular lasso tool, the user must continually click around the image to outline the shape.
To complete the selection, the user must connect the end point to the starting point just like the regular lasso tool. Magnetic lasso tool are considered the smart tool. It can do the same as the other two, but it can also detect the edges of an image once the user selects a starting point. It detects by examining the color pixels as the cursor moves over the desired area. Closing the selection is the same as the other two, which should also should display the "marching ants" once the selection has been closed.
The quick selection tool selects areas based on edges, similarly to the magnetic lasso tool. The difference between this tool and the lasso tool is that there is no starting and ending point. For this reason, the selected area can be added onto as much as possible without starting over.
By dragging the cursor over the desired area, the quick selection tool detects the edges of the image. The "marching ants" allow the user to know what is currently being selected. Once the user is done, the selected area can be edited without affecting the rest of the image. One of the features that makes this tool especially user friendly is that the SHIFT key is not needed to add more to the selection; by default, extra mouse clicks will be added to the selection rather than creating a new selection.
The magic wand tool selects areas based on pixels of similar values. One click will select all neighboring pixels of similar value within a tolerance level set by the user. If the eyedropper tool is selected in the options bar, then the magic wand can determine the value needed to evaluate the pixels; this is based on the sample size setting in the eyedropper tool. This tool is inferior to the quick selection tool which works much the same but with much better results and more intuitive controls.
The user must decide what settings to use or if the image is right for this tool. The Eraser tool erases content based on the active layer. If the user is on the text layer, then any text across which the tool is dragged will be erased. The eraser will convert the pixels to transparent, unless the background layer is selected. The size and style of the eraser can be selected in the options bar.
This tool is unique in that it can take the form of the paintbrush and pencil tools. In addition to the straight eraser tool, there are two more available options — background eraser and magic eraser. The background eraser deletes any part of the image that is on the edge of an object.
This tool is often used to extract objects from the background. The magic eraser tool deletes based on similar colored pixels. It is very similar to the magic wand tool. This tool is ideal for deleting areas with the same color or tone that contrasts with the rest of the image. Using simple combinations of keys video layers can easily be modified, with other features such as adding text and creating animations using single images.
With the Extended version of Photoshop CS5, 2D elements of an artwork can easily become three-dimensional with the click of a button. Extrusions of texts, an available library of materials for three-dimensional, and even wrapping two-dimensional images around 3D geometry. Third-party plugins have also been added to the most recent version of Photoshop where technologies such as the iPad have integrated the software with different types of applications.
Applications like the Adobe Eazel painting app allows the user to easily create paintings with their fingertips and use an array of different paint from dry to wet in order to create rich color blending.
The program will feature cloud syncing with other devices and a simpler interface than the desktop version. The plug-in allows users to remove noise without the side-effect of over-sharpening, add grain, and even perform post-crop vignetting. From version Artists can add color, adjust the shape or rotate the angles of imported models, or design original 3D models from scratch.
The Color Replacement Tool allows the user to change the color, while maintaining the highlights and shadows of the original image, of pieces of the image. By selecting Brushes and right clicking, the Color Replacement Tool is the third option down. What is important to note with this tool is the foreground color.
The foreground color is what will be applied when painting along the chosen part of the image with the Color Replacement tool. Photoshop and derivatives such as Photoshopped or just Shopped have become verbs that are sometimes used to refer to images edited by Photoshop, [47] or any image manipulation program. The same happens not only in English but as the Portuguese Wikipedia entry for image manipulation attests, even in that language, with the trademark being followed by the Portuguese verb termination -ar, yielding the word "photoshopar" to photoshop.
Such derivatives are discouraged by Adobe [6] because, in order to maintain validity and protect the trademark from becoming generic , trademarks must be used as proper nouns. Photoshop's naming scheme was initially based on version numbers, from version 0. Adobe published 7 major and many minor versions before the October introduction of version 8. In February Adobe donated the source code of the 1. The first Photoshop CS was commercially released in October as the eighth major version of Photoshop.
Photoshop CS increased user control with a reworked file browser augmenting search versatility, sorting and sharing capabilities and the Histogram Palette which monitors changes in the image as they are made to the document.
Match Color was also introduced in CS, which reads color data to achieve a uniform expression throughout a series of pictures. Photoshop CS2, released in May , expanded on its predecessor with a new set of tools and features. It included an upgraded Spot Healing Brush, which is mainly used for handling common photographic problems such as blemishes, red-eye, noise, blurring and lens distortion.
One of the most significant inclusions in CS2 was the implementation of Smart Objects, which allows users to scale and transform images and vector illustrations without losing image quality, as well as create linked duplicates of embedded graphics so that a single edit updates across multiple iterations. Adobe responded to feedback from the professional media industry by implementing non-destructive editing as well as the producing and modifying of Bit High Dynamic Range HDR images, which are optimal for 3D rendering and advanced compositing.
FireWire Previews could also be viewed on a monitor via a direct export feature. Image Warping makes it easy to digitally distort an image into a shape by choosing on-demand presets or by dragging control points. The File Browser was upgraded to Adobe Bridge, which functioned as a hub for productivity, imagery and creativity, providing multi-view file browsing and smooth cross-product integration across Adobe Creative Suite 2 software.
Camera Raw version 3. Photoshop CS2 brought a streamlined interface, making it easier to access features for specific instances. In CS2 users were also given the ability to create their own custom presets, which was meant to save time and increase productivity. CS3 improves on features from previous versions of Photoshop and introduces new tools. One of the most significant is the streamlined interface which allows increased performance, speed, and efficiency.
There is also improved support for Camera RAW files which allow users to process images with higher speed and conversion quality. The Black and White adjustment option improves control over manual grayscale conversions with a dialog box similar to that of Channel Mixer.
There is more control over print options and better management with Adobe Bridge. The Clone Source palette is introduced, adding more options to the clone stamp tool. Other features include the nondestructive Smart Filters, optimizing graphics for mobile devices, [53] Fill Light and Dust Busting tools. CS3 Extended includes everything in CS3 and additional features. There are tools for 3D graphic file formats, video enhancement and animation, and comprehensive image measurement and analysis tools with DICOM file support.
As for video editing, CS3 supports layers and video formatting so users can edit video files per frame. They were also made available through Adobe's online store and Adobe Authorized Resellers. CS4 features smoother panning and zooming, allowing faster image editing at a high magnification. The interface is more simplified with its tab-based interface [56] making it cleaner to work with. Photoshop CS4 features a new 3D engine allowing the conversion of gradient maps to 3D objects, adding depth to layers and text, and getting print-quality output with the new ray-tracing rendering engine.
It supports common 3D formats; the new Adjustment and Mask panels; content-aware scaling seam carving ; [57] fluid canvas rotation and File display options. Adobe released Photoshop CS4 Extended, which has the features of Adobe Photoshop CS4, plus capabilities for scientific imaging, 3D, motion graphics, accurate image analysis and high-end film and video users. The faster 3D engine allows users to paint directly on 3D models, wrap 2D images around 3D shapes and animate 3D objects.
Photoshop CS5 was launched on April 12, In May , Adobe Creative Suite 5. Its version of Photoshop, The community also had a hand in the additions made to CS5 as 30 new features and improvements were included by request.
These include automatic image straightening, the Rule-of-Thirds cropping tool, color pickup, and saving a bit image as a JPEG. Another feature includes the Adobe Mini Bridge, which allows for efficient file browsing and management. A new materials library was added, providing more options such as Chrome, Glass, and Cork. The new Shadow Catcher tool can be used to further enhance 3D objects. For motion graphics, the tools can be applied to over more than one frame in a video sequence.
Photoshop CS6, released in May , added new creative design tools and provided a redesigned interface [65] with a focus on enhanced performance. Adobe Photoshop CS6 brought a suite of tools for video editing. Color and exposure adjustments, as well as layers, are among a few things that are featured in this new editor. Upon completion of editing, the user is presented with a handful of options of exporting into a few popular formats.
CS6 brings the "straighten" tool to Photoshop, where a user simply draws a line anywhere on an image, and the canvas will reorient itself so that the line drawn becomes horizontal, and adjusts the media accordingly.
This was created with the intention that users will draw a line parallel to a plane in the image, and reorient the image to that plane to more easily achieve certain perspectives. CS6 allows background saving, which means that while another document is compiling and archiving itself, it is possible to simultaneously edit an image. CS6 also features a customizable auto-save feature, preventing any work from being lost. With version Adobe also announced that CS6 will be the last suite sold with perpetual licenses in favor of the new Creative Cloud subscriptions, though they will continue to provide OS compatibility support as well as bug fixes and security updates as necessary.
Starting January 9, , CS6 is no longer available for purchase, making a Creative Cloud license the only purchase option going forward.
Photoshop CC As the next major version after CS6, it is only available as part of a Creative Cloud subscription. Major features in this version include new Smart Sharpen, Intelligent Upsampling, and Camera Shake Reduction for reducing blur caused by camera shake. Since the initial launch, Adobe has released two additional feature-bearing updates.
The first, version The major features in this version were Adobe Generator, a Node. Photoshop Version CC features improvements to content-aware tools, two new blur tools spin blur and path blur and a new focus mask feature that enables the user to select parts of an image based on whether they are in focus or not.
Other minor improvements have been made, including speed increases for certain tasks. Photoshop CC was released on June 15, Adobe added various creative features including Adobe Stock, which is a library of custom stock images. It also includes and have the ability to have more than one layer style. The updated UI as of November 30, , delivers a cleaner and more consistent look throughout Photoshop, and the user can quickly perform common tasks using a new set of gestures on touch-enabled devices like Microsoft Surface Pro.
Photoshop CC was released on November 2, It introduced a new template selector when creating new documents, the ability to search for tools, panels and help articles for Photoshop, support for SVG OpenType fonts and other small improvements. Photoshop CC version 19 was released on October 18, It featured an overhaul to the brush organization system, allowing for more properties such as color and opacity to be saved per-brush and for brushes to be categorized in folders and sub-folders.
It also added brush stroke smoothing, and over brushes created by Kyle T. Webster following Adobe's acquisition of his website, KyleBrush. Other additions were Lightroom Photo access, Variable font support, select subject, copy-paste layers, enhanced tooltips, panorama and HEIF support, PNG compression, increased maximum zoom level, symmetry mode, algorithm improvements to Face-aware and selection tools, color and luminance range masking, improved image resizing, and performance improvements to file opening, filters, and brush strokes.
Photoshop CC was released on October 15, Beginning with Photoshop CC version This version Introduced a new tool called Frame Tool to create placeholder frames for images.
It also added multiple undo mode, auto-commitment, and prevented accidental panel moves with lock work-space. Live blend mode previews are added, allowing for faster scrolling over different blend mode options in the layers panel.
Other additions were Color Wheel, Transform proportionally without Shift key, Distribute spacing like in Illustrator, ability to see longer layer names, match font with Japanese fonts, flip document view, scale UI to font, reference point hidden by default, new compositing engine, which provides a more modern compositing architecture is added which is easier to optimize on all platforms.
Photoshop was released on November 4, It added several improvements to the new content-aware fill and to the new document tab. Also added were animated GIF support, improved lens blur performance and one-click zoom to a layer's contents. It introduced new swatches, gradients, patterns, shapes and stylistic sets for OpenType fonts. Presets are now more intuitive to use and easier to organize.
With the February update version This version improved GPU based lens blur quality and provided performance improvements, such as accelerating workflows with smoother panning, zooming and navigation of documents. Version 21 was the first version where the iPad version was released.
It introduced faster portrait selection, Adobe Camera Raw improvements, auto-activated Adobe Fonts, rotatable patterns, and improved Match Font. This is the first macOS release to run natively on Apple silicon. Content Credentials Beta was introduced. When enabled, the editing information is captured in a tamper-evident form and resides with the file through successive copy generations. It aligns with the C2PA standard on digital provenance across the internet. The Adobe Photoshop family is a group of applications and services made by Adobe Inc.
Several features of the Adobe Photoshop family are pixel manipulating, image organizing, photo retouching, and more. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Raster graphics editing software. For the colloquial verb meaning photograph manipulation, see Photoshop verb. For other uses, see Photoshop disambiguation. For the vector graphics language, see PostScript. Adobe Photoshop
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